Manila or Cebu, the Moluccas or the Ming Empire
Although the main idea of the Castilians was to establish themselves in the Moluccas, as we know, they ultimately settled in the Philippines, from where they set their sights on the vast empire of the Ming dynasty. They then moved from the city of Cebu to Manila, which was closer to the Chinese coast.From then on, the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines became a commercial empire and a crossroads for goods, people, and ideas from three continents.This uncertainty is explicitly stated in a letter from Legazpi, written in July 1570, where the “Adelantado” and first governor of the Philippines asks the Viceroy of New Spain whether he should remain in Cebu, in case the goal is to reach the Moluccas, or establish himself in Manila if the aim is to reach the Chinese coast.The letter is located in Seville at the General Archive of the Indies and is reproduced in:
The key to the Manila Galleon: The Return Journey (Tornaviaje)
The legendary Augustinian friar, Andrés de Urdaneta, managed to find the long-awaited Return Journey, that is, the route from the Philippines back to New Spain. Until then, it had been impossible.
The route was unknown, and the voyage was so excessively long that food would spoil, and even the strongest would fall ill and die. Additionally, there were the inherent dangers associated with such a lengthy journey.Before the fortunate discovery of the Return Journey, the only way to return to Spanish territory was by taking the Portuguese route, sailing around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope.
After many failed attempts, they succeeded by sailing north, rounding Japan, and then taking the Kuroshio current, which carried them almost in a straight line to the American coast, at the height of California, before then sailing south along the coast to reach the port of Acapulco.This was the first time in history that it was possible to travel to and from America and Asia.
The route was unknown, and the voyage was so excessively long that food would spoil, and even the strongest would fall ill and die. Additionally, there were the inherent dangers associated with such a lengthy journey.Before the fortunate discovery of the Return Journey, the only way to return to Spanish territory was by taking the Portuguese route, sailing around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope.
After many failed attempts, they succeeded by sailing north, rounding Japan, and then taking the Kuroshio current, which carried them almost in a straight line to the American coast, at the height of California, before then sailing south along the coast to reach the port of Acapulco.This was the first time in history that it was possible to travel to and from America and Asia.
The "longest and most terrible route in the world"
The journey from New Spain to the Philippines took about three months, but the return trip lasted twice as long, or even more.
It was the longest non-stop route in the world. Over its nearly 250 years of duration, about 30 galleons were lost, along with countless lives and unimaginable treasures.
Corsairs, storms, currents, mutinies, lack of food, water, and diseases turned this route into “the longest and most terrible of any undertaken in the world.”
Contrary to what one might think, only 4 were captured by the enemies of the Crown. Others simply disappeared, like the San Antonio in 1603, which was devoured by the Pacific Ocean, never to be heard from again.
Explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós wrote in his diary that “there was a sailor who said that it was better to die once than many times, to have his eyes closed and let the ship sink to the bottom of the sea. For neither God nor the king forced what was impossible.”
Pablo Emilio Pérez-Mallaína, a professor at the University of Seville, discovered that near the Marianas there was a place known as the “cemetery of Doña María,” because a noblewoman had committed suicide there due to the unbearable hardships.
He affirmed that the route from Manila to Acapulco was the longest and most terrible in the world.
It was the longest non-stop route in the world. Over its nearly 250 years of duration, about 30 galleons were lost, along with countless lives and unimaginable treasures.
Corsairs, storms, currents, mutinies, lack of food, water, and diseases turned this route into “the longest and most terrible of any undertaken in the world.”
Contrary to what one might think, only 4 were captured by the enemies of the Crown. Others simply disappeared, like the San Antonio in 1603, which was devoured by the Pacific Ocean, never to be heard from again.
Explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós wrote in his diary that “there was a sailor who said that it was better to die once than many times, to have his eyes closed and let the ship sink to the bottom of the sea. For neither God nor the king forced what was impossible.”
Pablo Emilio Pérez-Mallaína, a professor at the University of Seville, discovered that near the Marianas there was a place known as the “cemetery of Doña María,” because a noblewoman had committed suicide there due to the unbearable hardships.
He affirmed that the route from Manila to Acapulco was the longest and most terrible in the world.
The True Ghost Galleon?
As an example of the terrible harshness of that navigation, in 1657, a ghost galleon was found adrift on the shores of New Spain’s Tehuantepec, with all its crew members dead. According to some authors, it could have been the San José.
It is possible that its crew died of plague, but to add more confusion to the case, we have the following: According to records, two ships left the Philippines that fateful year, the San José and the Nuestra Señora de la Victoria.
Months later, the authorities of the Royal Audience of Guatemala were informed that a galleon was adrift on their shores, with the pilot dead and not enough people to reach Acapulco.
80 sailors had died, and only a handful of men remained on board, led by General Francisco García del Fresno. The sailors were replaced by other New Hispanics, and they finally managed to reach Acapulco.
Perhaps the passage of time, the tendency to exaggerate, and the imagination of people have mixed the names of both galleons and their tragic fates… or perhaps not…
There are cases where it is better to keep dreaming than to investigate the truth.
The sangleyes
The influential Chinese community of Manila
In everything related to the Acapulco Galleon, it is essential to mention the populous Chinese community of Manila, estimated to be between 20,000 and 30,000 souls during the 16th and 17th centuries.
They are frequently mentioned in Spanish chronicles.
In these chronicles, they speak of the Parián, the neighborhood where the Chinese or sangleyes lived. In a letter dated July 13, 1589, addressed to his fellow brethren in Chiapas and Guatemala, the Dominican Juan Cobo wrote about them:
“There is here in Manila, by the river, a market called Parián, which is a large square with arcades, in the middle of which is a large water basin with a bridge to the river, through which the water enters and exits. Here they come with their little boats and *champanes*, which are like small ships […], there are countless ones that enter and leave.
In this market, there are goods such as silk, linen, and everything that men could want.
There are artisans for every trade: silversmiths, tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, painters, chandlers… Finally, for every craft imaginable, there are as many as one could wish for.”
The first scientific exploration of China conducted by a European
Just like goods, thought, technique, and religion also passed from one continent to another.
Missionaries began evangelising Filipinos and Sangleyes, which was the name given to the Chinese in the Philippines. Among these friars was Fray Martín de Rada, a great mathematician and cosmographer, who was one of the first Spaniards to visit the vast Chinese empire.
In 1575, he was sent on an official journey from Manila. After his travels, he wrote a chronicle, as was customary among Spaniards during the Age of Discovery:
The True Account of the Matters of the Kingdom of TAIBIN, otherwise known as China.This work is considered by many experts to be the first scientific exploration of China carried out by a European.
At the same time and during the same expedition, one of the soldiers accompanying the missionary, Miguel de Loarca, wrote *The True Account of the Greatness of the Kingdom of China*, the first travel chronicle about China written in Spanish.Both works were fundamental for the understanding of China in Europe at the time.
Missionaries began evangelising Filipinos and Sangleyes, which was the name given to the Chinese in the Philippines. Among these friars was Fray Martín de Rada, a great mathematician and cosmographer, who was one of the first Spaniards to visit the vast Chinese empire.
In 1575, he was sent on an official journey from Manila. After his travels, he wrote a chronicle, as was customary among Spaniards during the Age of Discovery:
The True Account of the Matters of the Kingdom of TAIBIN, otherwise known as China.This work is considered by many experts to be the first scientific exploration of China carried out by a European.
At the same time and during the same expedition, one of the soldiers accompanying the missionary, Miguel de Loarca, wrote *The True Account of the Greatness of the Kingdom of China*, the first travel chronicle about China written in Spanish.Both works were fundamental for the understanding of China in Europe at the time.
In Antonio de Morga’s book ‘Sucessos de las Yslas Philipinas’, we read:
“Ordinarily, a large number of cargo ships and junks arrive in Manila from Great China, loaded with goods (…) and the items they commonly bring and sell to the Spaniards include raw silk in bundles, fine double-headed silk, and another of lesser quality; fine, loose silks, white and in all colours, in small skeins; many plain and brocaded velvets of various patterns, colours, and designs (…).
A great quantity of grass linen, known as lenzesuelo, and white cotton cloth of different kinds and qualities, for all purposes; musk, benzoin, ivory, many curiosities such as beds, canopies, coverlets, and hangings embroidered on velvet; damask and gorbaran in varied shades, tablecloths, pillows, carpets, horse trappings made of the same materials, as well as beadwork and mother-of-pearl; some pearls, rubies, and sapphires, and hollow crystal stones, cauldrons, and other vessels of copper and cast iron; a great deal of all kinds of nails, sheet iron, tin, and lead, saltpetre and gunpowder, wheat flour, preserves of orange, peach, scorzonera, pear, nutmeg, ginger, and other fruits from China; hams, other cured meats, live hens and beautiful capons, an abundance of fresh fruit, oranges of all kinds, excellent chestnuts, walnuts, pears, and chicueyes, fresh and dried, which are highly prized fruits; needles, spectacles, small boxes, writing desks, beds, tables, chairs, and benches, gilded and marbled with many figures and designs; tame buffaloes, geese like swans, horses, some mules and donkeys, even caged birds, some of which talk and others sing, performing all sorts of tricks; countless knick-knacks and trinkets of little cost or value, which are highly prized among the Spaniards (…); pepper and other spices and curiosities, which to list them all would be endless, nor would much paper suffice for the task.”
Map of Manila housed in the General Archive of the Indies in Seville. It was created in 1671 by Friar Ignacio Muñoz.
The "everything for a hundred" or "one-price-for-all" shops of the 16th century
It may seem like a modern concept, but our ancestors were already shopping cheaply. Dated in Manila on 24 June 1590, Domingo de Salazar, the first Bishop of Manila, wrote a letter to Philip II in which we read:
*”In this Parián, there are doctors and apothecaries, with signs in their languages placed in the pharmacies, indicating what is sold there; there are also many taverns where the Sangleys and the natives go to eat, and I am told that Spaniards also frequent them. The mechanical trades of the Spaniards have all ceased, because everyone dresses and wears shoes made by the Sangleys, as they are very skilled craftsmen, in the Spanish style, and they do it all very cheaply; (…) There are many gardeners among these Sangleys, who, in places where it seemed nothing could grow, cultivate a great abundance of excellent vegetables, both those from Spain and from Mexico, and they keep this market as well supplied as those of Madrid or Salamanca. They make saddles, bridles, and stirrups, so good and so cheap that some merchants intend to ship them to Mexico.”*
Trade from the Philippines to New Spain
A large part of the goods that arrived from China were shipped via the Manila Galleon to New Spain. The main product was silk, but there were also fabrics and textiles of all kinds, spices, porcelain, and other crafts such as mirrors, lacquered furniture, ivory works, tibors, and tens of thousands of muskets highly prized in both America and Europe. Although the journey was arduous, so were the profits, which is why, by the late 17th century, many European merchants settled in Manila to take advantage of this lucrative yet risky trade. The majority were English and Dutch, although there were also French, Portuguese, Swedish, and Danish merchants.We should not forget the large number of people who crossed the Pacific. According to Professor Edward Slack, between 40,000 and 60,000 Asians arrived in Acapulco during the 250 years of the Manila Galleon trade. Other authors, such as historian José Luis Chong, suggest that this number may not be accurate due to the limited capacity of the galleons, reducing the figure to a maximum of 14,000.An important part of the Galleon’s trade was luxury curiosities, such as this exquisitely carved and hollowed-out ivory tusk, which is currently housed in the Oriental Museum of Valladolid (Spain).
Influences of the Round-Trip: The Parián of Mexico
View of the Zócalo of Mexico City, 1695, by Cristóbal de Villalpando, in which the Parián can be seen.
The Manila Galleon: A Vehicle for More Than Just Goods
The Manila Galleon was not just a mere transporter of goods; it was also a conduit for the exchange of ideas, culture, and science, with influence flowing in both directions across the Pacific. One of the most significant examples of this exchange in New Spain was the *Parián* of Mexico, a market that stood as a vibrant symbol of the global interconnections created by the Galleon trade.
Named after its Filipino counterpart, the Parián of Mexico was the most important and bustling market in the Americas during the 17th and 18th centuries. Situated in what is now the vast Zócalo Plaza in Mexico City, it became a center for the sale of goods brought by the Manila Galleon, as well as products that arrived through the broader Carrera de Indias.
The market itself was a massive, enclosed space filled with narrow alleys and stalls selling some of the most exotic and exclusive items from the farthest reaches of the globe. The *parianistas*, those who frequented the market, were part of the elite of New Spanish society, showcasing their economic power. This market was not just a place of commerce; it was a reflection of the city’s prosperity, with Mexico City—along with Lima—being one of the most thriving cities in the Spanish colonies.
In addition to the main *Parián* in Mexico City, there were also other *parianes* in cities such as Ojuelos, Tlaquepaque, Guadalajara, Zapopán, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas, some of which still exist today.
Despite its immense importance, the Parián was demolished in 1844 following Mexico’s independence as part of the urban redesign of the city. Merchants were expropriated without compensation, marking the end of an era for one of the most iconic centers of trans-Pacific commerce.
The Manila Galleon was not just a mere transporter of goods; it was also a conduit for the exchange of ideas, culture, and science, with influence flowing in both directions across the Pacific. One of the most significant examples of this exchange in New Spain was the *Parián* of Mexico, a market that stood as a vibrant symbol of the global interconnections created by the Galleon trade.
Named after its Filipino counterpart, the Parián of Mexico was the most important and bustling market in the Americas during the 17th and 18th centuries. Situated in what is now the vast Zócalo Plaza in Mexico City, it became a center for the sale of goods brought by the Manila Galleon, as well as products that arrived through the broader Carrera de Indias.
The market itself was a massive, enclosed space filled with narrow alleys and stalls selling some of the most exotic and exclusive items from the farthest reaches of the globe. The *parianistas*, those who frequented the market, were part of the elite of New Spanish society, showcasing their economic power. This market was not just a place of commerce; it was a reflection of the city’s prosperity, with Mexico City—along with Lima—being one of the most thriving cities in the Spanish colonies.
In addition to the main *Parián* in Mexico City, there were also other *parianes* in cities such as Ojuelos, Tlaquepaque, Guadalajara, Zapopán, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas, some of which still exist today.
Despite its immense importance, the Parián was demolished in 1844 following Mexico’s independence as part of the urban redesign of the city. Merchants were expropriated without compensation, marking the end of an era for one of the most iconic centers of trans-Pacific commerce.
The Mexican Grandeur
Edited in the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1604, the Castilian poet Bernardo de Balbuena wrote his marvelous poem dedicated to the city of Mexico titled *Grandeza Mexicana*. In it, one can appreciate the enormous opulence of the powerful city, thanks to the products that arrived at its markets, such as the Parián, through the Manila Galleon and the Carrera de Indias. Here is an excerpt from this beautiful and descriptive work:
“From Spain, the best
From the Philippines, the cream
From Macao, the most precious
From both Javas, wondrous riches
The fine porcelain of the fearful Sangley
The rich martens from the Cispian lands
The cinnamon-scented Troglodyte
Amber from Malabar
Pearls from Idaspes
Drugs from Egypt
Scents from Pancay
Persian carpets
And jaspers from Ethiopia.
In you, Spain meets China,
Italy meets Japan, and, ultimately,
the whole world in trade and discipline.”
Goods from New Spain to the Philippines
Silver bar. Whether in ingots or minted into pesos or Reales of Eight, silver was by far the main product that went from Acapulco to Manila.
The main product that arrived in the Philippines and from there to China was silver. It happened that when the Ming dynasty began collecting taxes in silver, rich mines of this mineral were discovered in the American viceroyalties. This silver became so highly demanded in China that its exchange rate with gold was much higher than in Europe. On the other hand, China was so abundant in everything that the Spanish realized quickly that the only thing they could offer the Chinese for trade was silver. This is evident from the letter sent in 1573 to King Philip II by the viceroy of New Spain, Martín Enríquez:
“…One of the difficulties that this trade and commerce has is that from this land or from Spain, up until now, nothing can be brought that they do not already have, because they have an abundance of silks and linens: they also say they have them; as for cloths, due to the warm climate, they do not wear them or care for them; sugar, there is a great abundance; wax, spices, and cotton in the islands there is plenty, where they come to buy it. So it is summarized that the trade of this land must be with silver, which is what they value the most.”
In smaller quantities than silver, the galleon also carried various European and New Spanish products, such as books, dyes, leather, cacao, and vanilla. It is particularly noteworthy that American-origin crops, such as potatoes, maize, sunflowers, tomatoes, and pumpkins, were introduced into China. As in Europe, some of these products helped prevent famines and contributed to better nutrition in the country.
The Dates
The galleon left Manila in June or July, with the summer monsoon, and arrived in Acapulco in November or December. Between January and February, the goods were unloaded in Acapulco. The ship left Acapulco in March or, at the latest, April, sailing directly towards Manila, where it arrived between June and July, just as another galleon was leaving for New Spain.Two enormous fairs were held coinciding with the galleon’s arrival at its destinations: one in Manila and one in Acapulco. The one in Acapulco could last up to two months. The New Spanish city was completely transformed, becoming extraordinarily lively. Exorbitant prices were paid for a place to sleep, eat, or drink. Silver flowed freely and changed hands as a result of the overflowing trade.Once the fair ended, much of the merchandise was sent to the capital of the viceroyalty via the royal roads to be sold in the legendary Parián. Other goods were sent to other places in New Spain.Some goods “slipped” into the Peruvian viceroyalty through illicit channels, since very early on, Peruvian merchants were prohibited from attending the Acapulco fair. Finally, many of those goods were shipped to Havana to be sold there at astronomical prices, or through the Carrera de Indias, sent to Spain, where only the rich among the rich could afford them, including, of course, the monarchs.Thousands of items brought from the other side of the world went on to enrich the Royal Collections.
Asian Luxuries in Spanish Palaces
Part of the porcelain dinnerware of Philip V and a carved rhinoceros horn
The Spanish Royal Collections in their palaces feature many examples of Asian products brought through the Manila Galleon and the Carrera de Indias. Covered jars, porcelain, Fo dragons, lacquered items, furniture, ivory, tableware, jewelry… fill the rooms of palaces in Madrid, El Escorial, San Ildefonso, La Almudaina, Aranjuez… and yet, few eyes notice them.
These works of art were crafted by someone in a workshop in China. From there, they were transported by carts to the southern ports, where they would be stored until boarding. They would then be loaded onto a ship and sail across the sea to Manila, where they would be unloaded and stored until the Galleon’s departure. After being loaded again, they would travel halfway across the world, facing storms and typhoons, reaching Acapulco, where they would once again be unloaded and stored, waiting to be loaded onto carts and mule teams for transport to Veracruz. After being stored again, they would be loaded onto a ship bound for Havana, and from there, they would cross the other half of the world to reach Seville, Sanlúcar, or Cádiz. After their final unloading and storage, they would be transported by carts to their final destination in the Spanish palaces.
If we think about it, it’s a miracle that they arrived in one piece, especially the porcelains. Many wouldn’t make it. Who could afford the price of just one of these pieces? Only the richest of the rich, for they were true Asian luxuries.
The Last Manila Galleon
The Courts of Cádiz decreed in 1813 the suppression of this route, which meant that Filipino traders could trade freely and with their own ships, but the joy was short-lived.
After the civil war that culminated in the independence of the vast viceroyalty of New Spain, the goods from the last Manila Galleon were seized by the new government, and in March 1815, it returned empty to Manila. It carried the symbolic name of “Magallanes.”
The last Manila Galleon, known as Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza, sailed from Manila in 1815 and marked the end of more than two centuries of transpacific trade between Asia and America. This route, established in the late 16th century, allowed goods from China and other parts of Asia to reach the Americas, primarily Acapulco, and then be distributed to Europe through the Carrera de Indias.
On its last voyage, the Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza was unable to complete its journey successfully. During its return to Manila, it was intercepted by a fierce storm, and as a result, the ship ran aground on the shores of the Las Marías Islands, off the Mexican coast, where much of its cargo was lost.
The fall of the Manila Galleon route was a direct result of political and economic tensions, as well as competition with other trade routes, such as those passing around Cape Horn, and the economic interests of European powers. Despite its decline, the Manila Galleon left a profound legacy, as the goods and products it transported were key in creating a cultural, economic, and social exchange between Asia, the Americas, and Europe.
