The role of paper

Paper as a Cultural Vehicle in the Indies

When the Spanish first made contact with the Indigenous peoples of what is now Mexico, they discovered that a form of paper was already in use there: amate paper.

The conquest, colonisation, and evangelisation of the Indies would not have been possible without the presence of this vital cultural vehicle. From the very beginning, enormous quantities of paper were required: missionaries needed it as an essential tool for converting the Indigenous population, producing books written in their native languages; officials relied on it to ensure proper administrative order; and all of them used it for personal recreation. Thus, paper became an indispensable medium for maintaining the complex web of political and human relations between Spain and the Indies.

In the second half of the 17th century alone, thousands of books and nearly 420 million sheets of paper were shipped from the ports of Seville and Cádiz (source: The Manufacture of Paper in Spain and Spanish America in the 17th Century, María del Carmen Hidalgo Brinquis). A total of 34,983 balones of paper were loaded, with each balón containing 24 reams, and each ream comprising 500 sheets.

The paper was stored at the headquarters of paper companies in Seville or Cádiz, from where it was shipped aboard vessels of the Carrera de Indias. Once in the Indies, it was transported on muleback to various markets. The paper was wrapped in coarse cloth known as bramantillo or, more commonly, packed in wooden crates. Due to various contingencies—delays in fleet departures, shipwrecks, pirate attacks, and ambushes by bandits along the roads—a considerable amount of time often passed between the manufacture of a single sheet in Europe and its eventual use in the Indies.

Videos on Paper in the Carrera de Indias

The Paper that Reached the Indies

During the 17th century, paper became an essential material in the administration of Councils, Audiences, Consulates, notaries, ecclesiastical institutions, as well as in printing presses and bookstores. It was also an indispensable tool in the administrative relations of private life, as every individual was forced to use paper for any type of interaction or transaction with the administration. Additionally, during this period, paper became a protagonist in everyday life, serving as a support material for drugstores, haberdasheries, and spice shops, used for wrapping or, simply, for holding pins, buttons, trimmings, etc., as well as in the fine arts, such as engraving and playing cards. It was also employed in many other forms, like cardboard, papier-mâché, and in the grand development of “ephemeral architecture” in the Baroque period, constructing triumphal arches, tombs, and other similar works for various celebrations: canonisations, the arrival of viceroys, bishops, etc.The paper that arrived in the Indies was of various types and qualities, depending on its intended use. Notable types included “common,” “superior,” “Valencia,” “blue” (specifically treated to repel moths and used to wrap dresses and mantillas), and “marked” or “brand” paper.Most of this paper arrived aboard the ships of the Carrera de Indias, with the majority being manufactured in Genoa, a lesser amount in France, and some also from the Iberian Peninsula. However, due to the vastness of the American viceroyalties, which made their defense impossible, and the ever-present need for goods, from the mid-17th century, pirates and smugglers caused significant breaches in Spanish trade. Among the products they introduced was, naturally, paper.

Obscurantism and Ignorance?

Much has been said about the obscurantism, ignorance, and backwardness of the Spaniards of the time in comparison to other countries… But this deserves to be revisited, especially during the period of Spain’s cultural flourishing, the *Siglo de Oro*, which, by the way, lasted almost two centuries.

A clear example of this can be seen in the spread of culture across all the territories of the empire: Juan de Zumárraga, the first bishop of Mexico and founder of the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, recognised the need for a printing press. He wrote to the Council of the Indies to request one, as well as the construction of a paper mill in his diocese. After obtaining the necessary permission from Emperor Charles V, the powerful publisher based in Seville, Juan Cromberger, shipped his press and the printer who would operate it, Juan Pablos, on one of the ships departing from Seville bound for the Americas. After the long voyage, the press was transported from Veracruz to Mexico City. It was set up in the centre of the viceroyalty’s capital, in a house known at the time as “the House of the Bells,” and thus, the first printing press in the Americas was inaugurated in 1539. It would not be the only one. In 1584, the press in Lima was opened.

In 1593, the second printing press of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in Manila, followed by one in Puebla de los Ángeles in 1640, and another in Guatemala in 1660…It’s worth mentioning that the first printing press established by the English in America was in 1639 in Massachusetts… a century later than the Spanish presses.

The Culhuacán Paper Mill. The First in New Spain.

An article that we now consider simple, such as paper, was a nearly luxurious, essential, and scarce commodity in 16th-century America. Despite the increasing amounts of paper transported by the ships of the Carrera de Indias, there was not enough production of paper in Spain to meet the enormous demand generated by the rapid expansion of the two viceroyalties. Moreover, such a prized material took a long time to reach New Spain, and even longer to reach the neighboring kingdom of Peru.Paper had useful and necessary functions: it was used to keep records of the ships of the Carrera de Indias, support the bureaucratic and administrative tasks of the two vast viceroyalties, but it also played (pun intended) a priority, irreplaceable role: its use for the essential and prompt conversion of the indigenous people to the Christian faith.In Culhuacán, what was then on the outskirts of present-day Mexico City, stood the Convent and Seminary of San Juan Evangelista, a major evangelization centre for the area. To carry out their titanic mission effectively, the Augustinian monks needed vast quantities of paper and books… which they didn’t have. So, they decided to create them and build a paper mill. This way, they would be able to produce the much-needed material. The establishment was likely due to a request submitted to the Council of the Indies by Bishop Fray Juan de Zumárraga between 1533 and 1538, and it was already operational by 1580.They took advantage of a water drop and a spring to set in motion the typical waterwheel, which had a horizontal axis at its centre, with two cams at its end that alternately raised a wooden hammer with nails on its tips, which hammered old rags, turning them into paper pulp. The paper mould was then dried, pressed to remove moisture, and left to dry on racks. Once dry, the sheets were smoothed and polished with stones.The remains of what was once the first paper-producing centre in the Indies can be found today at 6, 15 de Septiembre Street in the Pueblo de Culhuacán, Mexico City.

Biblioteca Palafoxiana: The First Public Library of New Spain

It was founded on 5th September 1646 by the bishop and viceroy of New Spain, Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, who donated five thousand volumes from his personal collection to the San Juan Seminary. It is located in the historic centre of the city of Puebla, Mexico. In making his donation, the great humanist had in mind both the formation of the clergy and that of the local society, as he stipulated that the volumes of his new and splendid library could be consulted by anyone who wished to read or study. For this reason, the Biblioteca Palafoxiana is considered the first public library in the Americas. Although comparisons are often unfavourable, it is worth noting that the first public library in the United States was in Boston, created in 1852… nearly two centuries later.The majority of its bibliographic collection arrived from Spain on the ships of the Carrera de Indias. Even when the viceroy completed his mandate and returned to Spain, he continued sending books to the library in his beloved Puebla through the agents of the House of Trade, who took great care in shipping the expensive volumes to ensure they were not damaged during the long and arduous journey.The Biblioteca Palafoxiana is a universal treasure that, in 2005, was included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register, as it reflects European culture in the Americas. It houses over 45,000 volumes, 5,348 of which are manuscripts. Among the most important books are 9 incunabula (books printed before 1500), the oldest of which is *The Nine Books of the History of Herodotus*, printed in 1473. Following closely is *The City of God* by Saint Augustine, from 1475.

Genoa, The Paper Superpower

During this period, Genoese paper was synonymous with high quality, and all European paper makers tried to replicate its characteristics. Furthermore, its trade in Spain was favoured by the presence of numerous Genoese bankers in Castile, who provided financial assistance to the Crown and, in return, received privileges, commercial monopolies, and preferential access to supply certain manufactures, including paper. These privileges ensured the Genoese control of raw materials (rags), the production of paper both in Genoa and in France or Flanders, and its distribution across the vast Spanish Empire. By the end of the 16th century, the Italian republic had become the most important paper-producing industry in Europe.

In Genoa, extensive legislation was established to prevent the emigration of not only master paper makers but also carpenters skilled in building the machinery and furniture required for the production of “Genoese paper.”

Spanish rags were exported from ports and returned as paper, which led to complaints from Spanish paper makers, prompting abundant legislation aimed at protecting national paper makers. One of the first examples of this protectionist policy was passed in the Courts of the Principality of Catalonia on 19th June 1599, when Catalan paper makers obtained from Philip III a ban on the sale and export of rags. Similarly, on 13th January 1615, the city of Valencia decided to prohibit the export of rags for paper making, which were to be delivered to those who owned paper mills in Valencia.

Spanish Paper

Despite the dominance of Genoese and, to a lesser extent, French markets, at the beginning of the 17th century, Spain’s paper industry began to recover, growing stronger as the century progressed and reaching its peak in the 18th century. However, it was never able to fully meet the enormous demand of an expanding market driven by the great cultural boom, increased administrative needs, and the everyday use of paper, especially in the Spanish colonies.

The paper produced in Spain during the 17th century was of low quality and insufficient to meet demand. This became more apparent during a period rich in cultural development, with a significant rise in book printing, pamphlets, and bullae, which required an enormous amount of paper.

According to data collected by paper expert Don Gonzalo Gayoso Carreira and historian and watermark scholar Don Oriol Valls y Subirá, during these years, there were dozens of paper mills in Spain that could not keep up with the market’s insatiable demand for paper. Both scholars identified the Spanish paper industry in the following locations:

Kingdom of Castile: Alberite, Baños del Río Tobía, Logroño, Soria, Segovia, Palazuelos de Eresma (Segovia), Pastrana, Salamanca, Cartuja de El Paular: this mill was the most important in Castile in the 17th century, and its paper was used to print the first edition of Don Quixote. In Granada, there were several mills along the Darro River.

Kingdom of Aragon: Along the Noya River, the most important paper production in Spain concentrated, both in terms of the number of mills and the quality of the paper produced, with the municipality of Capellades (Barcelona) standing out. Paper production expanded throughout the region, and to the north, it reached Torelló, Salt, Roda de Ter, and San Juan de las Fuentes (Girona).

In Zaragoza, there were paper mills not only in the city but also in Tarazona and Villanueva de Gállego.

Source: La fabricación del papel en España e Hispanoamérica en el siglo XVII (María del Carmen Hidalgo Brinquis)

The role of the Carrera de Indias in generating tax revenue for the Crown.

Paper, like playing cards, was an important source of income for the Crown, particularly through the stamped paper tax established during the reign of Philip III. Before this regulation and the monopoly on its trade with the Indies were introduced, there were already various taxes through which paper contributed to the Crown’s revenue. These were primarily customs duties paid at the main ports of the Carrera de Indias and the traditional alcabala tax paid on the purchase and sale of paper.

According to Mª Luisa Martínez Salinas in her book La implantación del impuesto del papel sellado en Indias, this tax on paper was approved by the courts on 3 October 1617, and it was set at one blanca for each sheet of ordinary white paper and four maravedís for each hand of brown paper. Additionally, alongside these transit rights, which belonged to the Royal Treasury and could be considered public tolls, a large number of municipal and feudal taxes remained in place, adding new levies on goods passing through their territories. As a result, the sum of these taxes significantly raised the product’s price, leading to a range of strategies to evade them.

Source: La fabricación del papel en España e Hispanoamérica en el siglo XVII (María del Carmen Hidalgo Brinquis)

Life in a Paper Mill

With the invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century, paper gained significant prominence in Europe, which increased its demand and made it necessary to obtain it more quickly and in greater quantities, leading to the need to develop increasingly complex tools and machines that required more knowledge.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, a paper mill was not only a workplace but also a large residence. The families of the owner and workers lived there. There was no fixed working hours. Work was done by piece rate depending on the arrival of orders that required full dedication in order to deliver the paper by a certain date. It was hard work, with a high rate of accidents and mortality, where workers had to contend with enormous humidity, unpleasant smells, and deafening noise. In exchange for these hardships, skilled workers often earned a good wage.

They were always located next to a watercourse, but on the other hand, they had to be well connected in order to source raw materials, primarily rags, and to distribute the paper to their main clients: convents, administrative centres, notaries, scribes, printers, and booksellers.

The curious devotion of Our Lady of the Rag

In 1613, the Genoese paper master Juan de Otonel, an expert in fine paper manufacturing, established a fine paper mill with six wheels on the banks of the Huécar River, in the small town of Molinos de Papel (named so because there had been other mills dedicated to this craft). According to Otonel himself, it was the first mill in Spain to produce fine paper. He spent over 12,000 ducats building this mill, bringing necessary tools and thirty workers from Genoa.In a hermitage founded in the 16th century, a small oil painting on canvas venerates the face of a Virgin with a curious devotion deeply connected to the world of paper in Spain.As we’ve seen, to make paper pulp, rags were required, which were crushed in paper mills. The legend tells that this canvas was included in a batch of rags destined to be crushed in the mill, but the Genoese machine would stop or reject it before even touching it. Astonished, the paper master observed it and took it out, carrying it to the hermitage where it is venerated under the title of Our Lady of the Rag.