So many ships!
All Together: Sailing "En Conserva" (In Convoy).
One of the most distinctive features of the Carrera de Indias was that ships sailed together in convoys for mutual protection and assistance, a practice known at the time as sailing “en conserva.” Although these fleets could consist of dozens upon dozens of ships, they were always led by the capitana at the front and the almiranta closing the formation at the rear—both typically large galleons.
Additionally, about twenty percent of the ships were also galleons, tasked with escorting the convoy. These warships would sail windward, ready to intervene swiftly if needed.
This method of sailing in convoy was highly complex, as the entire fleet had to match the speed of the slowest vessel, which inevitably prolonged and increased the cost of the journey. As described in the novel MUCAIN: The Museum of the Carrera de Indias:
“Navigation never ceased, neither by day nor by night. When darkness fell, a great lantern was lit upon my ship, guiding the rest, and at dawn, a tally of vessels was made to ensure none had strayed. Night sailing was the most perilous, for, as I have already mentioned, not all ships were of the same size, rigging, or speed. Though we always adjusted our course to that of the slowest vessel, the fickle winds could alter our formation. The fleet of the Carrera maintained visual contact at all times, even through the night, and if any ship lagged too far behind, its captain was punished severely, ensuring that both he and his crew would be more diligent in the future. To delay the fleet by even a single day, with so many ships carrying only limited provisions—especially water—could spell disaster for us all.”
Galley
Used since antiquity by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians, galleys were incorporated into the fleets of the Byzantines, Venetians, Ottomans, Portuguese, Castilians, and Aragonese… All of them used the galley, the quintessential warship of the Mediterranean. What is curious, however, is that galleys continued to be built during the Modern Age, with some even challenging the Atlantic and reaching the Indies.
We all have in mind the iconic galley battle from the legendary film Ben Hur, or the Battle of Actium in 31 BC between Julius Caesar and Mark Antony in the film Cleopatra. Well, the galleys that fought at Lepanto in 1571, or those that operated in the 16th and early 17th centuries in the Eastern and Western Indies, were essentially very similar ships. Between 1577 and 1612, various galleys operated from bases in Cartagena de Indias, Havana, Manila, and Santo Domingo.
They were very fast and light ships, propelled by both sails and oars. Most of the rowers were slaves or prisoners serving their sentences by rowing. They were known as “the scum.” There were also free men rowers, known as “buenaboya.”
Carrack
They were the natural evolution of the Mediterranean cocas, from which they inherited their prominent castles at the bow and stern. They had been in use since at least the 13th century, as their name already appears in Las Siete Partidas by Alfonso X. Two of them, La Carcena and La Rosa de Castro, were used by Admiral Bonifaz during the conquest of Seville between 1247 and 1248.
In the illustrations from the relevant period, they are depicted as three-masted ships: the foresail (the one closest to the stern), the mainmast (the central one) with square sails, and the mizzenmast with triangular or lateen sails, all with a very round or bulbous hull.
In the 16th century, they displaced at least 500 tons, easily reaching up to 1,000. These ships were used for cargo or troop transport, were slow-moving, and had difficulty manoeuvring. Although they were occasionally used as escorts in the Carrera de Indias and were armed, this was not the most common use due to their low speed and poor manoeuvrability. Perhaps that’s why two of the definitions provided by the Royal Spanish Academy for the word carraca are derogatory, indicating:
- Old or slow ship.
- Deteriorated or obsolete artifact.
They were true floating fortresses, adapted for cargo, but not for defending against the pirate attacks that were beginning to intensify. For this reason, work began on a new type of ship, which eventually led to the creation of the naos.
Hulk
It was a ship of Dutch origin, later imitated by other countries such as Spain. They were mostly used as merchant ships or for troop transport, although sometimes they could carry artillery. Their size varied from the smaller ones of 60 tons to the larger ones of 500 tons. They were very bulky and slow vessels, which greatly complicated the overall speed of the fleets bound for the Indies.
Perhaps for this reason, in 1571, Philip II ordered that those ships prepared to depart for the Indies should do so, but their use in the Carrera de Indias was prohibited from then on. However, in the 17th century, due to the scarcity of galleons, they reappeared enlisted in the Ocean Fleet and in the Guard of the Carrera.
One of the most famous urcas in history was the Urca de Lima, sunk in the terrible Bahamas Channel in 1715. More info here: [Link]
Its wreck became the first underwater archaeological conservation centre in Florida. More info here: [Link]
The Urca Eendracht, shown alongside this text, was captured by the ship San Bartolomé in the Philippines in 1600.
Caravel
Ships created by the Portuguese, they evolved into the Castilian caravel, to which they added an additional square sail, making them more suitable for long voyages. They were long, narrow, relatively light, and agile ships, which made them ideal (as the Portuguese had already demonstrated along the African coast during the 15th century) as excellent exploration vessels.
Two caravels, the Pinta and the Niña, are probably the most famous ships in history, and their manoeuvrability and handling were highly praised, especially when compared to that of the Nao Santa María, by the Admiral. In Columbus’s time, caravels were small ships, ranging between 50 and 100 tons in displacement, but by the 16th century, those sailing in the Carrera de Indias had reached double the tonnage.
Nao
In many ways, the nao was the natural successor to the carrack. Naos were ships widely used during the Carrera de Indias, just as much, if not more, than the legendary galleons. They were so frequently used that the term nao became synonymous with ship. Naos were primarily used as merchant ships, while galleons were more often employed as warships. However, naos were also used as escorts and warships, as they were versatile vessels capable of carrying a considerable amount of artillery. They were large enough to carry a good amount of cargo, robust and fast enough for combat, and seaworthy enough for long Atlantic voyages, making them the ideal ship in the early days of the Carrera de Indias.
They were more streamlined and faster than the carrack, with a less pronounced forecastle. The great sailor Juan Escalante de Mendoza recommended that those enlisted in the Carrera de Indias should not exceed 500 tons, with the smallest around 100 tons. The most famous naos were the Victoria of Magellan-Elcano, with a capacity of 102 tons, and the Santa María used by Columbus.
As time went on, there was a need for larger, more manoeuvrable, and faster ships, and most importantly, due to the threat of piracy, ships with greater artillery capacity. This led to the rise of the legendary rulers of the Carrera de Indias: the galleons.
The galleon is the quintessential Spanish ship and formed the backbone of the Carrera de Indias fleets. It was Spain’s answer to Atlantic navigation and its dangers, combining in a single vessel speed, manoeuvrability, firepower, and cargo capacity. In this way, centuries of naval experience and knowledge were brought together in one ship.
To begin with, the traditional medieval construction rule of 3, 2, 1 was transformed into 4, 3, 1. With 3 being the length (the ship’s length), 2 being the beam (width), and 1 being the draught (height), which made the ship rounder, longer, and with more hull below the waterline. It is important to note that the more hull a ship has below the waterline, the more stable its navigation. This was a technological milestone and changed the concept of naval warfare by carrying an unprecedented amount of artillery.
Instead of having a single-piece mast, it was divided into several sections, which made it much easier to replace a piece in case of a storm or combat. The galleon was the greatest exponent of Spanish technology, and in its time, there was no advanced machine more powerful than a galleon. It took almost two years to build and nearly another year to arm and rig the sails. They were powerful and robust vessels, and as proof of their durability, almost all of the galleons sent against England in 1588, despite the terrible storms they faced, returned to their bases in the Cantabrian Sea.
It is worth noting that there was no single model of galleon, as its design evolved over the centuries. This ship was the undisputed ruler of the seas from the mid-16th century until the 18th century, when the line ships took over.
The Galleon: The Shift in Naval Paradigm
The Galleon: A Versatile Ship... and of Many Sizes
Depending on the mission and the artillery they carried, the same galleon could serve as a warship one year and as a cargo ship the next.
In the 16th century, their displacement varied and increased, from just over 100 tons at the beginning of the century to 350 tons and then to 500 tons. The galleons that had to sail the Guadalquivir River and pass the Sanlúcar Bar were smaller than those in the escort waiting in Cádiz or those in the northern fleets, the latter occasionally becoming true floating fortresses of up to 60 metres in length and up to 1,200 tons.
By the early 17th century, their average capacity was already 753 tons. They were generally fast ships for their size, reaching speeds of up to 7 knots (a good 18th-century line ship reached 8-9 knots), and were mostly built in shipyards along the Cantabrian coast.
The ships that followed the route known as the Manila Galleon or Nao de la China were the largest galleons and the largest ships in general built at the time. On average, they displaced around 700 tons, but the largest ever built displaced between 1,700 and 2,000 tons. These enormous ships were mostly constructed in the Philippines, although eight of them were built in New Spain.
The Twilight of the Last Galleons
Like their size, their crew also varied. The average was 500 men, some of whom were the marines or infantrymen embarked on board.
Many galleons were private vessels enlisted for battles or for the fleets of the Carrera de Indias.
In the Battle of Rande in 1702, many of the remaining galleons of Spain were lost. After the War of Spanish Succession and the resurgence of the Enlightened Navy, naval technology was revived, with Spain copying everything that worked well from France. In less than 30 years, Spain once again became a technological and naval power.
France had already been building warships for 40 years, while Spain was still focused on constructing galleons. Two of the last galleons built by Spain were the San José and the San Joaquín, both constructed by Pedro de Aróstegui in 1697 at the Mapil shipyard in Aginaga (Usúrbil), Guipúzcoa.
After their completion in 1699, they made the journey from Pasajes to Cádiz to escort the Flota de Galeones to Tierra Firme that year.
The term “galleon” was applied to all ships, regardless of size, intended to maintain communications with the Americas and control of the seas. It remained in use until 1732, when King Philip V ordered the replacement of galleons with “registered ships”.
The Battle of Barú in 1708 was a decisive naval engagement that marked a turning point in tactics and shipbuilding, proving that galleons were outdated compared to the line ships built by the British.
Pataches
Small, light, and highly manoeuvrable ships. Their displacement ranged between 37 and 200 tons. They were commonly used to support other ships, as couriers, as alert vessels to announce the arrival of fleets at port a few days in advance, and also as transporters of the vital mercury used to separate silver extracted from mines from the impurities it contained (the gangue).
Another important role they played in the “Carrera de Indias” was to communicate orders between ships in fleets when sailing scattered and to recover straggling vessels.
The patache was also used as a sort of “coastguard” for the territories of the Indies. Spanish corsairs also made use of this versatile and fast vessel to capture enemy ships.
The Spanish Naval Phoenix
"The Giant Trinidad"
After the terrible War of Spanish Succession, the Spanish naval forces had been greatly weakened. With the change of dynasty and the rise of the Bourbons, a logical revolution took place across all areas of the empire, and, of course, the naval sphere was no exception. The Royal Navy was established, and alongside great ministers like Don José Patiño, and maritime scientists such as Gaztañeta, Jorge Juan, Gautier, and Romero de Landa, the legendary Enlightened Navy was created.
With sensible policies, talent, effort, and tenacity, in just over 50 years, the Spanish Royal Navy became the second most powerful in the world, after the British, and achieved unforgettable feats, such as the Royal Philanthropic Vaccine Expedition, the scientific Malaspina-Bustamante expedition, the missions to Alaska, the Northwest Passage, support for the Independence of the United States, the capture of the British fleet in 1780, the Battle of Cape Sicié, and more.
Its decline would come after the Battle of Trafalgar, where not only ships were lost, but also irreplaceable men, and definitively after the French invasion and the subsequent war against France.
Ship
After the creation of the Royal Navy in the 18th century, the entire naval system was revamped. New shipyards were modernized and established, and alongside great naval engineers, new types of ships were constructed: the ships of the line, replacing the obsolete galleons.
The classification of ships was systematized based on their dimensions, displacement, and artillery, with many ships being built in record time to meet the urgent need to regain maritime supremacy, sustain the Spanish trade route to the Indies, and improve communication with the viceroyalties. These, by the way, were also modified through the Bourbon reforms.
Ships were categorized into “ships of the line” and “non-line ships.” Ships of the line, so called because they fought in a line, forming a wall of artillery:
- First-class ships: 3 decks and 112 guns (exceptionally, the Santísima Trinidad had 4 decks and 140 guns, the largest of its time).
- Second-class ships: 3 decks and 90 guns.
- Third-class ships: 2 decks and 74 guns.
- Fourth-class ships: 2 decks and 60 guns.
All these ships of the line were warships, and when they participated in the Carrera de Indias, they did so as escorts.
Non-line ships included frigates, corvettes, brigantines, sloops, and brigs.
Frigate
In their time, these were the most commonly used ships in the Carrera de Indias. Their origin seems to be in the Spanish shipyards of Flanders, from where the corsairs in the service of the Spanish crown would attack their enemies with light, fast, and highly manoeuvrable ships known as frigates.
Over time, they replaced the outdated galleons as escorts in the Carrera de Indias.
With the creation of the Royal Navy following the arrival of the Bourbons in the 17th century, ships were classified by size and armament, with frigates being categorised as:
5th class ships: Frigates with one or two decks, carrying between 34 and 42 guns and a crew of 250 men. They were widely used in the Caribbean to fight against pirates and corsairs.
6th class ships: Smaller frigates with 20 to 32 guns and a crew of around 160 men. They served as dispatch boats, couriers, or for coastal patrols and open-sea operations to hunt enemy exploration ships.
Frigates famous for being looted by treasure hunters include the Mercedes, the Juno, and the Galga.
Devotions of Spanish Ships
Faith, Religion, Beliefs.
Being Spain and the Spanish monarchy defenders of the faith and of Catholicism, and with the treacherous seas being uncertain and always dangerous places (here, remember the plaque at the Naval School of Marín: ‘He who does not know how to pray, let him go across these seas, and he will soon learn, without anyone teaching him’), almost all the ships of the Carrera de Indias were given religious names, known as ‘patron saints.’
Among these patron saints, the Virgin, as the supreme intercessor of our faith, was the one to whom most of those ships were dedicated: Our Lady of Bethlehem, of the Rosary, of the Remedies, of the Conception, of Aránzazu, etc., etc. With the arrival of the Bourbons and the creation of the Royal Navy, the ships continued to carry religious names, but many also had a second name, known as an ‘alias.’ Thus, the ship Perla had the alias Santa Isabel Reina, Diana was Santa Ana, Conde de Regla was Nuestra Señora de Regla, and so on.
Moreover, the larger the ship, the more important its name was in the ‘religious hierarchy.’ Therefore, the largest ever built at that time was Santísima Trinidad. The 1st class line ships were dedicated to the Virgin, Christ, the Fathers of the Church, Evangelists, or Apostles. The 2nd and 3rd class ships were dedicated to local or lesser saints, such as the San Ildefonso, San Telmo, or San Pelayo classes.
The frigates were named after mythological figures, virgins, or saints: Our Lady of the Mercedes, of Atocha, Santa Casilda, Juno, Minerva…
